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Gyrinophilus porphyriticusSpring Salamander

By Daquan Hebron

Geographic Range

Spring salamanders, Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, are located from the Appalachian Mountains of the United States northward to the Adirondack Piedmont. This includes states as far north as Vermont and New York, southward to Georgia and Alabama. They can inhabit a wide extending into Canada, just over the country lines into St. Lawrence Lowlands of southern Quebec. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; Golden and Schwartz, 2002)

Habitat

The spring salamander’s habitat depends on an environment containing certain characteristics because they are lungless and obtain oxygen through their skin. They are commonly found in headwater springs that provide them with shade, low temperatures, and high oxygen concentrations in the water.

In terrestrial environments, spring salamanders can be found hiding under rocks, large objects, canopies or fallen trees in mature forests. Spring salamanders that live in mountains can tolerate habitats at elevations as high as 2,037 m. These salamanders occasionally live in caves. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; Culver, 1973; Golden and Schwartz, 2002; Greene, et al., 2008; Lowe, 2009)

  • Aquatic Biomes
  • rivers and streams
  • Other Habitat Features
  • caves
  • Range elevation
    2,037 (high) m
    ft

Physical Description

Spring salamanders can range from 12-19 cm length, with females about 1 cm longer than males. Newly-hatched larvae are typically 19 mm in length. Spring salamanders have orange skin with a slight brownish tint containing dark spots throughout the length of their body. The color of the species' skin ranges from salmon with a hint of brown to yellow. Their skin is blotchy with dark spots and a red tint.

Spring salamanders have flat heads with their eyes placed on the side and broad snout-like noses. Their tail resembles a knife with sharp edges. This feature increases their maneuverability while swimming in streams. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; Golden and Schwartz, 2002)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • Range length
    12 to 19 cm
    4.72 to 7.48 in

Development

During the summer, spring salamanders attach their eggs to the underside of rocks, logs, and underground depressions in streams. Embryos have external gills, and hatch late in the summer or autumn. Hatchlings vary in size by location; those native in the southern Appalachians can range from 18-22 mm long, while hatchlings from New York can reach 26 mm in length. Larvae are fully aquatic for up to four years, when they reach sexual maturity. Typically, metamorphosis occurs from July-August of this fourth year. At this time, males are typically 55 mm long at low elevations, and up to 81 mm long at higher elevations. Females must be at least 61 mm long to reach maturity at low elevations, and are reportedly longer and older when reaching maturity at higher elevations.

During metamorphosis their tail fins become more laterally pressed, and the relative size of their head shrinks, which is an adjustment to available food resources based on their size. Hatchlings can commonly be found taking cover during the day underground in recessions, wet-crevices, seeps, or underwater in streams hidden from predators. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; "Spring Salamander", 2007; Lannoo, 2005)

Reproduction

Courtship occurs streamside in the fall or late summer. During courtship, males and females engage in a pushing match while rolling in water. After the females decide their mating partner based on the quality of a male’s courtship behavior, males deposit spermatophores for females to insert. In this way, fertilization is internal.

During courtship, if a female spring salamander decides to pick up the male’s spermatophore, it’s stored in her cloaca for up to a year, when fertilization occurs and the eggs are laid. After laying the eggs, the female salamander guards them until they hatch. Spring salamanders have a polygynandrous reproductive strategy, in which males and females have numerous partners throughout their life. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011)

During courtship, spring salamanders have been found to communicate via pheromones. Then female spring salamanders store the fertilized eggs in their cloaca for up to a year before releasing their eggs. The length of time the eggs are stored is influenced by the elevation. They lay their eggs during the summer under logs or stones, while the eggs range from 3.5-4.0 mm in diameter. They press their cloaca under cover objects to expel their sticky eggs which stay where they’re placed. Eggs are expelled in clusters of 16-160 eggs that are guarded by the female until they hatch. The number of eggs in each cluster varies depending on the size of individual spring salamanders. The eggs hatch in the late summer, but exact times from egg-laying to hatching have not been reported.

Young sometimes stay near the female for up a maximum of 7 months after hatching, while not directly depending on her. It is not uncommon for hatchlings to become independent directly after birth. Spring salamanders have been found to have a larval period of 3-4 years. Male and female spring salamanders reach sexual maturity in 4 years. ("Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; Beachy, 1997; Beachy, 1997; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; Lannoo, 2005; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; Wake and Deban, 2000)

  • Breeding interval
    Spring salamanders breed once yearly.
  • Breeding season
    June-November
  • Range number of offspring
    16 to 106
  • Average time to independence
    0 minutes
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    4 to 6 years
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    4 to 6 years

Females lay their eggs under rocks or logs to hide their egg masses from predators. She will guard them until they hatch, but some hatchlings may stay around her for up to 7 months. Males provide no known parental investment to their offspring. (; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011)

Lifespan/Longevity

Spring salamanders have been found to survive in captivity for a maximum of 18.5 years. There is no information regarding longevity in the wild. ("Partners in Amphibian And Reptile Conservation: Northeast Working Group", 2011; Snider and Bowler, 1992)

  • Range lifespan
    Status: captivity
    18.5 (high) years
  • Average lifespan
    Status: captivity
    18.5 years
    AnAge

Behavior

Adult spring salamanders are motile and escape from predators by burrowing into mud or swimming away. While being predominately nocturnal, spring salamanders can be found swimming freely through streams in an eel-like motion with their legs held tightly to their body. Male and female spring salamanders can be found courting in an aquatic environment via pushing match. They have not been found to hibernate or migrate. During the winter months, they have been found to rest in streambeds to avoid freezing. ("Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; Lannoo, 2005; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012)

Home Range

A precise quantitative size of their home range is unknown. But their relative, the dusky salamander (Desmognathus fuscus), has been found to have a home range of 48.4 square meters. Spring salamanders have not been found to defend a territory. (Lannoo, 2005; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012)

Communication and Perception

Spring salamanders use visual, olfactory, and tactile senses to help them navigate and to hunt. When it is dark, they depend primarily on their olfactory senses to locate their prey. Spring salamander larvae in caves have been found to use mechanorecptors to locate their prey.

During courtship, spring salamanders will use pheromones released from the male's mental gland to communicate receptivity to mate.

As a defense mechanism, the spring salamanders produce toxic secretions. (Beachy, 1997; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; Culver, 1973; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; Wake and Deban, 2000)

Food Habits

At night, spring salamanders hunt small invertebrates and vertebrates. They have a wide variety of prey including earthworms, salamander eggs, crickets, slugs, spiders, and smaller salamanders. Southern populations are more likely to consume other salamanders. A number of studies, as reported by Lanoo (2005), list the salamander species consumed by spring salamanders. In northern populations, only the northern dusky salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) has been reported, and these instances are rare. However, in the south, a whole suite of species are opportunistically consumed: pygmy salamanders (Desmognathus wright), northern two-lined salamanders (Eurycea bislineata), Ocoee salamanders (Desmognathus Ocoee), Jordan's salamanders (Plethodon jordani), southern red-backed salamanders (Plethodon serratus), southern Appalachian salamanders (Plethodon oconaluftee), and red salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber).

Larvae consume small invertebrates such as spiders and centipedes. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; Lannoo, 2005; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012)

  • Animal Foods
  • amphibians
  • eggs
  • insects
  • terrestrial non-insect arthropods
  • terrestrial worms

Predation

Large spring salamanders, northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon), and common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) are frequently found preying upon small salamanders. To avoid larger salamanders, smaller spring salamanders hunt during the day while retreating to safety for cover at night. Spring salamanders use defensive postures as an attempt to scare off predators. However, their specific positions in these defensive postures are not well described.

Adults can secrete a toxin as a defense mechanism to repel shrews. ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; "Spring Salamander", 2007; "Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas", 2012)

Ecosystem Roles

Spring salamanders have commonly been found coexisting in environments with other salamander species such as northern two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata). One subspecies, the Blue Ridge spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus danielsi), hosts endoparasites such as protozans (Hexamastix batrachorum and Prowazekella longifilis), and nematodes (Omeia papillocauda, Capillaria inequalis, Cosmocercoides dukae). Spring salamanders also host trematodes (Allocreadium pseudotritoni, Plagioporus gyrinophili, Brachycoelium salamandrae), cestodes (Bothriocephalus rams), and acanthocephalans (Fessisentis necturorum). (Catalano, et al., 1982; Lannoo, 2005)

Commensal/Parasitic Species
  • nematodes Omeia papillocauda
  • nematodes Capillaria inequalis
  • nematodes Cosmocercoides dukae
  • acanthocephalans Fessisentis necturorum
  • trematodes Allocreadium pseudotritoni
  • trematodes Plagioporus gyrinophili
  • trematodes Brachycoelium salamandrae
  • protozoans Hexamastix batrachorum
  • protozoans Prowazekella longifilis
  • cestodes Bothriocephalus rams

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

There are no known positive economic effects of Gyrinophilus porphyriticus on humans.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known negative economic effects of Gyrinophilus porphyriticus on humans.

Conservation Status

Agriculture, deforestation, and predatory fish threaten spring salamander populations. Human activities in agriculture and deforestation have harmed the quality of stream water. Adding stream sedimentation and the removal of canopy cover from human activities reduce the quality of the stream water. This is detrimental to the spring salamander population due to their limited dispersal ability. Spring salamander larvae are the most vulnerable to the negative impacts of water pollution. A predatory fish, the brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, has been introduced to high-elevation streams. When overlapping with the spring salamander, it can negatively affect salamander populations.

In the United States, spring salamander populations are listed as threatened in New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Texas, and Rhode Island. They are also threatened in Mississippi and Québec, Canada. In order to help recovery of spring salamanders, there have been protective areas placed across their natural habitat in the United States and Canada. According to IUCN Red list, the spring salamander has a conservation status that is of "least concern." ("COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada", 2011; IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2014, 2014; Lannoo, 2005)

Contributors

Daquan Hebron (author), Radford University, Karen Powers (editor), Radford University, April Tingle (editor), Radford University, Emily Clark (editor), Radford University, Cari Mcgregor (editor), Radford University, Jacob Vaught (editor), Radford University, Genevieve Barnett (editor), Colorado State University.

Glossary

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

insectivore

An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

mimicry

imitates a communication signal or appearance of another kind of organism

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

mountains

This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.

natatorial

specialized for swimming

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

nocturnal

active during the night

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

pheromones

chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

scent marks

communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sedentary

remains in the same area

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

visual

uses sight to communicate

References

Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. COSEWIC Assessment and Status Report on the Spring Salamander, Adirondack / Appalachian and Carolinian populations Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in Canada. None. Ottawa, Canada: Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. xiv + 52 pp. 2011.

2011. "Partners in Amphibian And Reptile Conservation: Northeast Working Group" (On-line). Accessed March 25, 2015 at http://www.parcplace.org.

Ohio Division of Wildlife. Spring Salamander. 5348. Ohio: Ohio Division of Wildlife. 2007.

Middlebury University. Vermont Reptile & Amphibian Atlas. None. Middlebury, Vermont: Middlebury College. 2012.

Beachy, C. 1997. Courtship behavior in the Plethodontid salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus. Herpetologica, 53/3: 289-296.

Bruce, R., J. Castanets. 2006. Application of skeletochronology in aging larvae of the salamanders Gyrinophilus porphyriticus and Pseudotriton ruber. Journal of Herpetology, 40/1: 85-90.

Catalano, P., A. White, F. Etges. 1982. Helminths of the salamanders Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, Pseudotriton ruber, and Pseudotriton montanus (Caudata:Plethodontidae) from Ohio. The Ohio Journal of Science, 82/3: 120-128. Accessed April 15, 2015 at https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/22852/1/V082N3_120.pdf.

Culver, D. 1973. Feed Behavior of the salamander Gyrinophilus porphyriticus in caves. International Journal of Speleology, 5/3: 369-377. Accessed April 13, 2015 at http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/ijs/vol5/iss3/14/.

Golden, D., V. Schwartz. 2002. "Northern spring salamander" (On-line). Accessed March 25, 2015 at http://www.state.nj.us/dep/fgw/ensp/pdf/species/no_spring_salamander.pdf.

Green, B., T. Pauley. 1905. Amphibians & Reptiles in West Virginia. Pittsburg, Pa: University of Pittsburg Press.

Green, L., J. Peloquin. 2008. Acute toxicity of acid in larvae and adults of four stream salamander species. Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry, 27/11: 2361-2167.

Greene, B., W. Lowe, G. Likens. 2008. Forest succession and prey availability influence the strength and scale of terrestrial-aquatic linkages in a headwater salamander system. Freshwater Biology, 53/11: 2234-2243.

IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2014, 2014. "Gyrinophilus porphyriticus" (On-line). The ICUN Red list of Threatened Species. Accessed March 25, 2015 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/59282/0.

Lannoo, M. 2005. Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species. Canada: The Regents of the University of California.

Lowe, W. 2012. Climate change is linked to long-term decline in a stream salamander. Biological Conservation, 145/1: 48-53.

Lowe, W. 2012. Decoupling of genetic and phenotypic divergence in a headwater landscape. Molecular Ecology, 21/10: 2399-2409.

Lowe, W. 1994. Development of Gyrinophilus porphyriticus. Journal of Experimental Biology, 268/3: 239-258.

Lowe, W. 2009. What drives long-distance dispersal? A test of theoretical predictions. Ecology, 90/6: 1456-1462.

Lowe, W., M. McPeek, G. Likens, B. Cosentino. 2012. Decoupling of genetic and phenotypic divergence in a headwater landscape. Molecular Ecology, 21/10: 2399-2409.

Minton, S. 2001. Amphibians & Reptiles of Indiana. Canada: Indiana Academy of Science.

Snider, A., J. Bowler. 1992. Longevity of Reptiles and Amphibians in North American Collections. Oxford, Ohio: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.

Wake, D., S. Deban. 2000. Feeding: Form, Function, and Evolution. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Ward, R., J. Anderson, T. Petty. 2008. Effects of road crossings on stream and streamside salamanders. Journal of Wildlife Management, 72/3: 760-771.

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